<?php include('../HEADER.php'); ?>

<style type="text/css">
    p.attrib{ font-size:0.8em;font-style:oblique;text-indent:14em; }
    div.poem{ background:#ddd;padding:1em;padding-left:4em; }
</style>

<h1>On Poetry</h1>

<p>This document provides an overview of poetic forms and devices. Where possible, I reproduce complete poems as examples. Where that is not possible (in the case of very lengthy poems, for example), I provide a link to an example. When a good example exists in the public domain I cite that instead of a poem still under copyright.</p>

<p>This guide is a work in progress, and I welcome <a href="http://paulgorman.org/about/contact.php">suggestions or corrections</a>.</p>

<ul>
    <li><a href="#meter">Meter</a>
        <ul>
            <li><a href="#syllables">Syllables</a></li>
            <li><a href="#accent">Accent</a></li>
            <li><a href="#feet">Feet</a></li>
            <li><a href="#examplemeters">Example meters &amp; scansion</a></li>
            <li><a href="#feetvariations">Variations, substitutions &amp; weak endings</a></li>
            <li><a href="#freeverse">Blank verse &amp; free verse</a></li>
        </ul>
    </li>
    <li><a href="#rhyme">Rhyme</a></li>
    <li><a href="#tropes">Rhetorical Tropes</a>
        <ul>
            <li><a href="#irony">Irony</a></li>
            <li><a href="#litotes">Litotes</a></li>
            <li><a href="#metaphor">Metaphor</a></li>
            <li><a href="#metonymy">Metonymy</a></li>
            <li><a href="#periphrasis">Periphrasis</a></li>
            <li><a href="#personification">Personification</a></li>
            <li><a href="#simile">Simile</a></li>
            <li><a href="#synecdoche">Synecdoche</a></li>
            <li><a href="#zeugma">Zeugma (and Syllepsis)</a></li>
            <li><a href=""></a></li>
            <li><a href=""></a></li>
        </ul>
    </li>
    <li><a href="#schemes">Rhetroical Schemes</a>
        <ul>
            <li><a href="#balance">Balance</a></li>
            <li><a href="#wordorder"></a></li>
            <li><a href="#"></a></li>
            <li><a href="#"></a></li>
        </ul>
    </li>
    <li><a href="#forms">Forms</a>
        <ul>
            <li><a href="#ballads">Ballads</a></li>
            <li><a href="#haiku">Haiku</a></li>
            <li><a href="#pantoums">Pantoums</a></li>
            <li><a href="#sestinas">Sestinas</a></li>
            <li><a href="#sonnets">Sonnets</a></li>
            <li><a href="#tankas">Tankas</a></li>
            <li><a href="#villanelles">Villanelles</a></li>
            <li><a href="#"></a></li>
            <li><a href="#"></a></li>
        </ul>
    </li>
    <li><a href="#modes">Modes</a>
        <ul>
            <li><a href="#Ellegy">Ellegy</a></li>
            <li><a href="#Ode">Ode</a></li>
            <li><a href="#Pastoral">Pastoral</a></li>
        </ul>
    </li>
    <li><a href="#glossary">Glossary</a></li>
    <li><a href="#furtherreading">Further Reading</a></li>
</ul>

<h2 id="meter">Meter</h2>

<p>There are two kinds of metrical systems: quantitative and accentual. Quantitative meter, introduced by the ancient Greeks, counts the number of syllables per line. Accentual meter, dating from third century Rome, counts the number of accented/stressed syllables in a line.</p>

<p>English verse traditionally employs accentual-syllabic meter, which counts both the number of syllables and the number of accents. These syllables are arranged into recurring patterns (called <i>feet</i>) of accented and unaccented syllables.</p>

<h3 id="syllables">Syllables</h3>

<p>Syllables are the basic phonological building blocks of words. One syllable is one sound.  A syllable is usually one vowel (or a vowel pair) with one or more consonants before and/or after the vowel.</p>

<p>The word <i>cat</i> is pronounced as one sound, and is one syllable. The word <i>helicopter</i> is pronounced as four sounds, and it's syllables can be illustrated like this: <i>hel&middot;i&middot;cop&middot;ter</i>.</p>

<p>There is some ambiguity in the syllabification of English words. For example, certain speakers pronounce the word <i>banker</i> as <i>ban&middot;ker</i>, but other speakers say <i>bank&middot;er</i>.</p>

<h3 id="accent">Accent</h3>

<p>Accent is some combination of loudness, pitch, fullness of vowel elocution, and duration. Context also plays a role in accentual emphasis.</p>

<p>The English language does not have universal rules that allow you to deduce with certainty the spoken accentuation of a word you've read but never heard. Many homographs differ by accentuation. The noun <i>record</i> is accented on the first syllable. The verb <i>record</i> is accented on the second. Syllabic accents may even differ slightly between dialects of English. Some experts suggest that there are two or more degrees of stress in English words.</p>

<p>However, here are a few hints which may help you guess which syllables are stressed or unstressed:</p>

<ul>
    <li>English words tend to have only one stressed syllable (or, at least, one syllable stressed more).</li>
    <li>Single syllable words are not stressed on their own, but may be stressed depending on their importance in a sentence, and the stresses of words around them.</li>
    <li>Two-syllable nouns tend to be stressed on the first syllable: PRES&middot;ent, EX&middot;port, CHI&middot;na, TA&middot;ble.</li>
    <li>Two-syllable adjectives tend to be stressed on the first syllable: PRES&middot;ent, SLEND&middot;der, CLEV&middot;er, HAP&middot;py.</li>
    <li>Two-syllable verbs tend to be stressed on the second syllable: pres&middot;ENT, ex&middot;PORT, de&middot;CIDE, be&middot;GIN.</li>
    <li>Words ending in <i>-ic</i>, <i>-sion</i>, or <i>-tion</i> tend to be stressed on the penultimate syllable: GRAPH&middot;ic, ge&middot;o&middot;GRAPH&middot;ic, ge&middot;o&middot;LOG&middot;ic, tel&middot;e&middot;VI&middot;sion, re&middot;ve&middot;LA&middot;tion.</li>
    <li>Words ending in <i>-al</i>, <i>-cy</i>, <i>-ty</i>, <i>-phy</i>, and <i>-gy</i> tend to be accented on the ante-penultimate syllable: CRI&middot;ti&middot;cal, ge&middot;o&middot;LOG&middot;i&middot;cal, de&middot;MO&middot;cra&middot;cy, de&middot;pend&middot;a&middot;BIL&middot;i&middot;ty, pho&middot;TO&middot;graph&middot;y, ge&middot;OL&middot;o&middot;gy.</li>
    <li>Compound nouns tend to stress the first part: BLACK&middot;bird, GREEN&middot;house.</li>
    <li>Compound adjectives tend to stress the second part: bad&middot;TEM&middot;pered, old-FASH&middot;ioned.</li>
    <li>Compound verbs tend to stress the second part: un&middot;der&middot;STAND, o&middot;ver&middot;FLOW
    <li>A syllable with a <i>schwa</i> (&#601;) or reduced vowel (pronounced sort of like "uh", almost elided) is usually unaccented: &#601;&middot;BOUT, TA&middot;k&#601;n, PEN&middot;c&#601;l, EL&middot;&#601;&middot;quent, s&#601;&middot;PPLY. <strong>The syllable with the most articulately stressed vowel tends to be the accented syllable in the word.</strong></li>
</ul>

<h3 id="feet">Feet</h3>

<p>The foot is the basic unit of poetic meter. A foot is comprised of two or three (or, rarely, four) syllables, which are accented or unaccented according to a pattern. The most common feet in English verse are the iamb, the trochee, the dactyl, and the anapest.</p>

<ul>
    <li>iamb: unstressed, stressed (x /)</li>
    <li>trochee: stressed, unstressed (/ x)</li>
    <li>dactyl: stressed, unstressed, unstressed (/ x x)</li>
    <li>anapest: unstressed, unstressed, stressed (x x /)</li>
    <li>spondee: stressed, stressed (/ /)</li>
    <li>pyrrhus: unstressed, unstressed (x x)</li>
</ul>

<h3 id="examplemeters">Example meters &amp; scansion</h3>

<p>English verse has many variations of types and numbers of feet, but by far the most used meter in English verse is <i>iambic pentameter</i>, five iambs per line.</p>

<div class="poem"><p style="font-family:monospace;white-space:pre;">  x   /    x  /       x  /    x  /   x     /
Shall I | compare | thee to | a Summ|er's day?
  x   /     x    /   x   /     x    /   x /
Thou art | more love|ly and | more tem|perate:
  x    /       x   /      x   /   x    /     x   /
Rough winds | do shake | the dar|ling buds | of May,</p>
<p class="attrib">from Shakespeare's sonnet 18</p>
</div>

<p>The practice of marking the feet of verse is called <i>scansion</i>. In these example of scansion, the unaccented syllables are marked with an "x" and the accented syllables with a "/". Other notation systems can be used; often unstressed syllables are marked with a breve (<span style="font-size:1.5em;"> &#774;</span> ) , and stressed syllables with a macron ( <span style="font-size:1.5em;">&#175;</span> ).</p>

<p><i>Ballad meter</i> (sometimes called <i>common meter</i>), mixes lines of <i>iambic tetrameter</i> and <i>iambic trimeter</i>.</p>

<div class="poem"><p style="font-family:monospace;white-space:pre;">x  /  x   /    x  /     x    /
I nev|er saw | a man | who looked
 x    /     x  /    x   /
With such | a wist|ful eye
x /      x   /   x   /     x   /
Upon | that lit|tle tent | of blue
  x     /    x    /      x   /
Which priso|ners call | the sky,</p>
<p class="attrib">from Wilde's Ballad of Reading Gaol</p>
</div>

<p>Lines of <i>iambic heptameter</i> are sometimes called "fourteeners".</p>

<div class="poem"><p style="font-family:monospace;white-space:pre;"> x     /   x   /       x    /      x /       x   /     x   /     x   /
Yea, fool|ish boy, | thou doest | desire | (and all | for want | of wit)
x   /   x    /        x  /  x  /      x    /  x   /     x   /
A grea|ter charge | than an|y God | coulde ev|er have | as yet.</p>
<p class="attrib">from Golding's Ovid</p>
</div>

<p>Here Blake abandons the iamb in favor of trochaic feet (<i>trochaic tetrameter</i>):</p>

<div class="poem"><p style="font-family:monospace;white-space:pre;">/    x     /  x       /   x      /
In what | distant | deeps or | skies
 /     x     / x   /    x      /
Burnt the | fire | of thine | eyes?
/    x     /     x      / x   /
On what | wings dare | he a|spire?
  /   x     /    x       /    x     /
What the | hand dare | seize the | fire?
</p>
<p class="attrib">from Blake's The Tiger</p>
</div>

<h4>Tips for scansion</h4>

<ul>
<li>A lot of English verse is made of iambs, and much of that is iamblic pentameter, so that's a good starting assumption.</li>
<li>Start by figuring out the accentuation of those words in the line which have the most syllables, then mark the shorter or one syllable words to fit that pattern.</li>
<li>Some lines may have a different meter from the bulk of the other lines in the poem.</li>
<li>The first line may have metrical variants, so you might want to start scanning the second or third lines first.</li>
<li>One foot in a line may not match the other feet, particularly the last foot.</li>
<li>There isn't always a right answer to scanning one line in isolation, but you can extrapolate from the other lines.</li>
</ul>

<h3 id="feetvariations">Variations, substitutions &amp; weak endings</h3>

<div class="poem"><p style="font-family:monospace;white-space:pre;"> x  /    x   /     x  /      /  x     x    /    x
To be, | or not | to be: | that is | the quest|ion</p>
</div>

<p>Shakespeare's famous line of iambic pentameter has <em>eleven</em> syllables, and that last syllable is unaccented. This is called a <i>weak ending</i> (also called a <i>feminine ending</i>). A poet might just needs an extra syllable, but more often the weak ending creates a particular poetic effect&mdash;in this case, emphasizing Hamlet's uncertainty.</p>

<p>Wordsworth sticks to ten syllables, but he emphasizes the first words of these two lines by substituting trochees in place of iambs:</p>

<div class="poem"><p style="font-family:monospace;white-space:pre;"> /  x       x     /        x  /   x  /      x    /
MILTON! | thou shouldst | be liv|ing at | this hour:     
/   x      x    /     x    /      x  /    x  /
England | hath need | of thee: | she is | a fen</p>
</div>

<h3 id="freeverse">Blank verse &amp; free verse</h3>

<p>Blank verse has a regular meter, but the endings of the lines do not rhyme. Blank verse became popular in the English language when it was employed by Elizabethan playwrights such as William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe.</p>

<p>Free verse uses neither rhyme nor regular, repeating meter. The Victorian poets, including Christina Rossetti and Matthew Arnold, were the first to widely employ free verse in English.</p>

<h2 id="rhyme">Rhyme</h2>

<ul>
    <li>Eye rhyme: through/though</li>
    <li>Identical rhyme: sane/insane</li>
    <li>Imperfect rhyme: thin/time</li>
    <li>Suspended rhyme: thing/along</li>
    <li>Vowel rhyme: see/buy</li>
</ul>

<h2 id="tropes">Rhetorical Tropes</h2>

<p>Tropes are figures of speech in which words are used in unexpected ways.</p>

<h3 id="metaphore">Metaphore</h3>

<p></p>

<h3 id="metonymy">Metonymy</h3>

<p>Metonymy calls a thing not by its own name, but by the name of something with which it is intimately associated. <i>Hollywood had a profitable summer</i> refers to the American film industry at large by naming the city with which it is most closely associated.</p>

<p>Metonymy might be thought of as a particular kind of metaphor.</p>

<h3 id="synecdoche">Synecdoche</h3>

<p>Naming the whole by one of its parts, or (arguably) naming the part by its whole. Samuel Taylor Coleridge's line "the western wave was all aflame" substitutes "wave" for "sea." <i>The animal barked with alarm</i> calls a specific dog by its taxonomic kingdom.</p>

<p>Synecdoche might be thought of as a particular kind of metonymy.</p>

<p>This sentence displays synecdoche, metaphor, and metonymy:</p>

<div class="poem"><p>"Fifty keels ploughed the deep..."</p></div>

<p>The synecdoche "keels" names the whole (the ship) after a particular part (of the ship). "Ploughed" metaphorically substitutes the concept of ploughing a field for sailing the ocean. "The deep" is a metonym, as "depth" is an attribute associated with the ocean.</p>

<h3 id="irony">Irony</h3>

<h3 id="zeugma">Zeugma (and Syllepis)</h3>

<p><i>Zeugma</i> is a figure of speech in which one verb or one noun joins several parts of a sentence. Shakespeare's <quote>"friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears"</quote> is one kind of zeugma. <i>Syllepsis</i> is another type of zeugma in which the governing word changes meaning for each part of a sentence it governs:</p>

<div class="poem"><p>Piano, n. A parlor utensil for subduing the impenitent visitor. It is operated by depressing the keys of the machine and the spirits of the audience.</p>
<p class="attrib">Ambrose Bierce, A Devil's Dictionary</p>
</div>

<h2 id="schemes">Rhetorical Schemes</h2>

<p>While tropes use words in unexpected, non-literal ways, rhetorical schemes arrange words in a pattern that changes or enhances their meaning or effect.</p>

<h2 id="parallelisms">Parallelisms</h2>

<h2 id="forms">Forms</h2>

<p>Any rule or prescription made regarding a particular form is in practice often ignored. Poets wantonly vary meter and break rhyme schemes. But that's not quite true. Poets work in formal verse because constraints spur creativity. When poets deviate from form they do so for good reasons.</p>

<h3 id="ballads">Ballads</h3>

<p>The origins of the ballad are murky, as most cultures has a long tradition of ballad-like forms. Ballads originate in song, and usually narrate a topic of popular interest, such as a shipwreck, civil insurrection, gruesome haunting, or particularly tragic love affair.</p>

<h4>Anatomy of a Ballad</h4>

</ul>
    <li>Usually made of multiple four line stanzas</li>
    <li>Usually the first and third lines of each stanza are iambic tetrameter, while the second and fourth lines are iambic trimeter</li>
    <li>Rhyme scheme <i>abab</i> or <i>abcb</i></li>
    <li>Subject almost always a narrative about supernatural happenings, love lost, or recent events.</li>
    <li>Often employ dialogue, sometimes peppered with regional dialect or colloquialisms.</li>
</ul>

<p>See Oscar Wilde's <a href="http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Ballad_of_Reading_Gaol">"The Ballad of Reading Gaol"</a> for an example of the form.</p>

<h3 id="haiku">Haiku</h3>

<p>The Haiku is a form of Japanese poetry, which has been adopted by many English poets. Japanese haiku consists of seventeen <i>moras</i>, and English poets use seventeen syllables, although moras and syllables are not quite the same thing.</p>

<h4>Anatomy of a Haiku</h4>

<ul>
    <li>Three lines total</li>
    <li>The first line has five syllables, the second seven syllables, and the last line has five syllables.</li>
    <li>Traditionally include a <i>kigo</i>, a word or phrase that indicates the season</li>
    <li>One of the lines traditionally ends with a <i>kireji</i>, a "cutting word" which functions somewhat like a volta or caesura, designed to make the reader pause and reflect about the previous lines. English poets sometimes use a punctuation mark to indicate the kireji.</li>
    <li>The subject of a haiku is one revealing moment&mdash;often an occurrence of or insight about the natural world&mdash;written in the present tense.</li>
    <li>The haiku rarely includes metaphor or simile.</li>
</ul>

<p>This haiku, translated from the Japanese, was written by Matsuo Basho in the seventeenth century:</p>

<div class="poem">
<p>the first cold shower<br />
even the monkey seems to want<br />
a little coat of straw</p>
</div>

<p>Yone Noguchi, who was instrumental in introducing Japanese poetry to the West around the turn of the twentieth century (and, incidentally, was the father of sculptor and designer Isamu Noguchi), wrote this haiku:</p>

<div class="poem">
<p>Some one at my door?<br />
Go away, go&mdash;go away!<br />
Good night, sir or madam</p>
</div>

<h3 id="pantoums">Pantoums</h3>

<p>The pantoum is derived from a Malayan form which came to the English language via France in the nineteenth century. Like the villanelle, it is notable for the repetition of lines, but unlike the villanelle the pantoum does not have a prescribed length.</p>

<h4>Anatomy of a Pantoum</h4>

<ul>
    <li>Any line length and meter</li>
    <li>Any number of stanzas, but all are quatrains</li>
    <li>Rhyme scheme <i>abab</i></li>
    <li>The first and third line of each stanza is a repetition of the second and fourth lines of the preceding stanza.</li>
    <li>The first and third lines of the poem are repeated as the fourth and second lines of the final stanza.</li>
</ul>

<p>A minor variant of the pantoum is the imperfect pantoum, in which the final stanza deviates from the prescribed rules.</p>

<h3 id="senryu">Senryu</h3>

<p>The senryu is a minor form of Japanese verse. Like a haiku, it has 17 syllables in three lines. Unlike haiku, the subject of senryu is human foibles. Senryu are often darkly humorous in tone.</p>

<h3 id="sestinas">Sestinas</h3>

<p>The sestina was invented in the twelfth century by troubadour Arnaut Daniel in Provence, France, and introduced into English by Philip Sidney in the sixteenth century.</p>

<h4>Anatomy of a Sestina</h4>

<ul>
    <li>Six stanzas of six lines followed by a three line envoi, for a total of thirty-nine lines</li>
    <li>No rhyme scheme (but repeated end-words as below)</li>
    <li>The six words ending the six lines of the first stanza must end the lines of every other stanza, but in a different order.</li>
    <li>If the end-words of the first stanza are numbered <i>123456</i>, they appear as the end-words of the second stanza in the order <i>615243</i>, in the third stanza as <i>364124</i>, in the fourth stanza as <i>532614</i>, in the fifth stanza as <i>451362</i>, and in the sixth stanza as <i>246531</i>.</li>
    <li>The six end-words appear in the envoi, though not necessarily as end-words. Often words 1 and 2 appear in line one, words 3 and 4 appear in line two, and words 5 and 6 appear in the final line.</li>
</ul>

<div class="poem">

<h4>Sestina of the Tramp-Royal</h4>

<p>Speakin' in general, I 'ave tried 'em all, <br />
The 'appy roads that take you o'er the world. <br />
Speakin' in general, I 'ave found them good <br />
For such as cannot use one bed too long, <br />
But must get 'ence, the same as I 'ave done, <br />
An' go observin' matters till they die. </p>

<p>What do it matter where or 'ow we die, <br />
So long as we've our 'ealth to watch it all -- <br />
The different ways that different things are done, <br />
An' men an' women lovin' in this world -- <br />
Takin' our chances as they come along, <br />
An' when they ain't, pretendin' they are good? </p>

<p>In cash or credit -- no, it aren't no good; <br />
You 'ave to 'ave the 'abit or you'd die, <br />
Unless you lived your life but one day long, <br />
Nor didn't prophesy nor fret at all, <br />
But drew your tucker some'ow from the world, <br />
An' never bothered what you might ha' done. </p>

<p>But, Gawd, what things are they I 'aven't done? <br />
I've turned my 'and to most, an' turned it good, <br />
In various situations round the world -- <br />
For 'im that doth not work must surely die; <br />
But that's no reason man should labour all <br />
'Is life on one same shift; life's none so long. </p>

<p>Therefore, from job to job I've moved along. <br />
Pay couldn't 'old me when my time was done, <br />
For something in my 'ead upset me all, <br />
Till I 'ad dropped whatever 'twas for good, <br />
An', out at sea, be'eld the dock-lights die, <br />
An' met my mate -- the wind that tramps the world! </p>

<p>It's like a book, I think, this bloomin' world, <br />
Which you can read and care for just so long, <br />
But presently you feel that you will die <br />
Unless you get the page you're readin' done, <br />
An' turn another -- likely not so good; <br />
But what you're after is to turn 'em all. </p>

<p>Gawd bless this world! Whatever she 'ath done -- <br />
Excep' when awful long -- I've found it good. <br />
So write, before I die, "'E liked it all!"</p>

<p class="attrib">Rudyard Kipling</p>

</div>

<p>A variation of the sestina is the double sestina, which uses twelve repeating end-words varying in order through twelve stanzas, and terminated by a six line envoi.</p>
<h2 id="sonnets">Sonnets</h2>

<p>There are two major varieties of sonnets: Shakespearean (English) and Petrarchan (Italian). Sonnets are often employed as love poems.</p>

<p>Well-known practitioners of the Petrarchan sonnet include Wordsworth, Milton, Elizabeth Barrett Browning, and Edna St. Vincent Millay. The conventions of the form were established by the 13th century.<p>

<p>The Shakespearean sonnet came to popularity in the 16th century. Shakespeare himself wrote at least 154 sonnets in the English style. Probably every major poet since Shakespeare has employed the form, including modern poets such as Yeats, Frost, and e.e. cummings.</p>

<h4>Anatomy of a Shakespearean Sonnet</h4>

<ul>
    <li>Fourteen lines
    <li>A single stanza, although there is typically a logical division or turn in the last couplet
    <li>Rhyme scheme of <i>ababcdcdefefgg</i>
    <li>Usually iambic pentameter, rarely tetrameter or hexameter
</ul>

<h4>Anatomy of a Petrarchan Sonnet</h4>

<ul>
    <li>Fourteen lines</li>
    <li>Two stanzas: the first of eight lines, the second of six lines</li>
    <li>First typically establishes the proposition or sets-up the situation, while the second stanza is the resolution or turn of mood, tone, or stance.</li>
    <li>Rhyme scheme of <i>abbaabba cdecde</i>, although there is often some variation in the rhyme scheme of sestet (<i>cdccdc</i> or <i>cddece</i> for example).</li>
    <li>Usually iambic pentameter, rarely tetrameter or hexameter</li>
</ul>

<p>Here's an example of a Petrarchan sonnet:</p>

<div class="poem">

    <p>Milton! thou shouldst be living at this hour: <br />
    England hath need of thee: she is a fen <br />
    Of stagnant waters: altar, sword, and pen, <br />
    Fireside, the heroic wealth of hall and bower, <br />
    Have forfeited their ancient English dower <br />
    Of inward happiness. We are selfish men; <br />
    Oh! raise us up, return to us again; <br />
    And give us manners, virtue, freedom, power. <br />
    Thy soul was like a Star, and dwelt apart; <br />
    Thou hadst a voice whose sound was like the sea: <br />
    Pure as the naked heavens, majestic, free, <br />
    So didst thou travel on life's common way, <br />
    In cheerful godliness; and yet thy heart <br />
    The lowliest duties on herself did lay.</p>

    <p class="attrib">William Wordsworth</p>

</div>

<h4>Minor Variations of the Sonnet</h4>

<p>The most popular of the minor sonnet variants is the Spenserian sonnet, named after Edmund Spenser (<i>The Faerie Queen</i>). The Spenserian rhyme scheme is <i>ababbcbccdcdee</i>. Spenser often began line 9 of his sonnets with the word "yet" or "but", which could signal a volta, though often line 9 was a false turn, and the actual turn did not occur until the final couplet.</p>

<p>Here's an example of a Spenserian sonnet:</p>

<div class="poem">

<p>One day I wrote her name upon the strand, <br />
But came the waves and washèd it away: <br />
Again I wrote it with a second hand, <br />
But came the tide and made my pains his prey. <br />
Vain man (said she) that dost in vain assay<br />
A mortal thing so to immortalise; <br />
For I myself shall like to this decay,  <br />
And eke my name be wipèd out likewise.  <br />
Not so (quod I); let baser things devise <br />
To die in dust, but you shall live by fame; <br />
My verse your virtues rare shall eternise,  <br />
And in the heavens write your glorious name: <br />
Where, when as Death shall all the world subdue,<br />
Our love shall live, and later life renew.</p>

<p class="attrib">Edmund Spenser</p>

</div>

<p>Another sonnet variation is the <b>caudate</b> sonnet. A caudate is a regular fourteen line sonnet with an additional coda added. The rhyme scheme of the coda is not standardized. The caudate is most often employed for satire. For an example of a caudate, google John Milton's "On the New Forcers of Conscience Under the Long Parliament." Gerard Manley Hopkins wrote a number of caudate in the form of Petrarchan sonnets with a six line codas, one example of which is "That Nature is a Heraclitean Fire."</p>

<p>Hopkins invented a sonnet form called the <b>curtal</b>. The curtal is ten-and-a-half lines long, and can be considered a shrunken Petrarchan. Whereas a Petrarchan sonnet is comprised of an octave followed by a sestet, a curtal is a sestet followed by a quatrain (with a half-line coda), so the Petrarchan and curtal share the same proportions. The curtal has the rhyme scheme <i>abcabcdccdd</i>. The few poets who have employed the curtal since Hopkins have used it mostly as a novelty. See Hopkin's "Pied Beauty".</p>

<p>The <b>Onegin</b> sonnet, sometimes called the Pushkin sonnet, is written in iambic tetrameter instead of pentameter. Its rhyme scheme is <i>ababccddeffegg</i>, with weak endings on lines 1, 3, 5, 6, 9, and 10. Alexander Pushkin invented the form for <u>Eugene Onegin</u>, his novel in verse.</p>

<p>Some modern and contemporary poets have penned free verse sonnet-like poems of fourteen lines, some without regular rhyme and meter, others with rhyme but not fixed meter.</p>


<h3 id="tankas">Tankas</h3>

<p>The tanka is one of the major short forms of Japanese verse.</p>

<ul>
    <li>Unrhymed</li>
    <li>Five units or phrases, often rendered as five lines in English</li>
    <li>A 5-7-5-7-7 pattern of phonetic units (often syllables in English)</li>
    <li>The 5-7-5 lines form the "upper phrase", and the 7-7 lines the lower phrase.</li>
    <li>Commonly use puns and other wordplay</li>
</ul>

<h3 id="villanelles">Villanelles</h3>

<p>The villanelle, with its repetitions and often pastoral theme, may have originated in the work songs of French peasants. It became popular in English in the late Victorian era. One of the finest examples of the villanelle is Dylan Thomas's "Do Not Go Gentle into that Good Night."</p>

<ul>
    <li>Five stanza of three lines each, and a final stanza of four lines, for a total of nineteen lines</li>
    <li>Rhyme scheme of <i>aba</i></li>
    <li>The first line repeats on lines</li>
</ul>

<div class="poem">

    <h4>The House on the Hill</h4>

    <p>They are all gone away, <br />
    The House is shut and still, <br />
    There is nothing more to say.</p>

    <p>Through broken walls and gray <br />
    The winds blow bleak and shrill. <br />
    They are all gone away. </p>

    <p>Nor is there one to-day <br />
    To speak them good or ill: <br />
    There is nothing more to say. </p>

    <p>Why is it then we stray <br />
    Around the sunken sill? <br />
    They are all gone away, </p>

    <p>And our poor fancy-play <br />
    For them is wasted skill: <br />
    There is nothing more to say. </p>

    <p>There is ruin and decay <br />
    In the House on the Hill: <br />
    They are all gone away, <br />
    There is nothing more to say.</p>

    <p class="attrib">Edwin Arlington Robinson</p>

</div>

<h2 id="modes">Modes</h2>
  
<h3 id="ellegy">Ellegy</h3>

<h3 id="ode">Ode</h3>

<h3 id="pastoral">Pastoral</h3>

<h2 id="glossary">Glossary</h2>

<dl>
<dt>coda</dt> <dd>from the Latin <i>cauda</i> meaning "tail". A coda is something added at the end.</dd>
<dt>envoi</dt> <dd>a short final stanza which comments on the preceding poem, or in which the poet or dramatic character addresses the reader or some real or imagined person.</dd>
<dt>scansion</dt> <dd>to scan a line of verse is to analyze (and possibly mark) its rhythm in terms of feet with accented and unaccented syllables.</dd>
<dt>turn</dt> <dd>marks the point in a poem (particularly sonnets) of a sudden shift in thought or tone. The turn might indicate the beginning of an answer to a question posed earlier in the poem, or the turn might begin a passage which undercuts or transforms the reader's understanding of the lines that came before.</dd>
<dt>volta</dt> <dd>see <em>turn</em></dd>
</dl>

<h2 id="furtherreading">Further reading</h2>

<ul>
    <li><u>Rhyme's Reason</u> by John Hollander</li>
    <li><u>The Ode Less Travelled</u> by Stephen Fry</li>
    <li><u>The Making of a Poem</u> by Mark Strand and Evan Boland</li>
    <li><a href="http://www.textetc.com/traditional/rhythm.html">Rythm in Poetry</a> at textetc</li>
    <li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllable">Syllable</a> at Wikipedia</li>
    <li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)">Stress (linguistics)</a> at Wikipedia</li>

    <li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foot_(prosody)">Foot (prosody)</a> at Wikipedia</li>
    <li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trope_(linguistics)">Trope (linguistics)</a> at Wikipedia</li>
    <li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figure_of_speech">Figure of speech</a> at Wikipedia</li>
    <li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheme_(linguistics)">Scheme (linguistics)</a> at Wikipedia</li>
    <li><a href="http://www.englishclub.com/pronunciation/word-stress-rules.htm">Rules of Word Stress in English</a> at EnglishClub.com</li>
</ul>

<?php include('../FOOTER.php'); ?>
